Facing the Freshwater Crisis: Peter Rogers (Scientific American. August 2008)

Population increase, rising incomes and consumption, and climate change will increase the demand for water, according to Peter Rodgers. Furthermore, the pollution of existing resources by defective waste disposals, industrial and agricultural discharges, and the infiltration of saltwater into fresh water sources threaten available resources. Rodgers enumerated the potential consequences--"starvation, disease, political instability and even armed conflict" (p. 46).

To assess water demand, Rodgers accepted Malin Falenmark's estimate that a person, on average, required 1,000 cubic meters of water per year "for drinking, hygiene, and growing food for sustenance" (p. 48). Stating the obvious reality that water does not flow where needed and that money determines water consumers, Rodgers acknowledged the inequities in water allocations. The poor and natural ecosystems of flora and fauna often experience unsustainable distributions. Apportioning water between countries, such as the Jordan River within the jurisdictions of Lebanon, Syria, Israel, and the Palestinian territories, pose greater challenges than those within country boundaries.

In addition to the macroeconomic forces of population growth and others, water pricing will influence demand, Rodgers claimed. Rodgers advocated raising water prices to encourage conservation by domestic and industrial users. Revenue from rate increase would fund necessary infrastructure maintenance and improvements, reducing water leaks and main breaks. As the largest water user, farmers would need to adopt agricultural efficiencies, such as
lining porous irrigation canals to prevent leaks, creating subsurface reservoirs as water banks for 'just in time' usage, and greater application of drip irrigation systems.

Other suggestions that Rodgers proposed included virtual water contracts, low-water sanitation, and desalination. Rodgers defined virtual water as "the amount of water that is used to produce food or another product and is thus essentially embedded in the item . . a proxy trade remedy" (p. 52). The trade agreement in foodstuffs between Jordan and Israel illustrates this principal. The Gebers Housing Project in Sweden exemplified the extremes of low-water sanitation. In addition to low-flow water fixtures and appliances, "treated urine is used as fertilizer in farming . . . excrement bins are transported to composting sites" (p. 52). Advances in the technology of reverse-osmosis and its processing in coastal areas enables new and more efficient sources of potable water. However, reverse osmosis still demands large energy resources, "so the availability of affordable power is important to significantly expanding its application" (p. 53).

Booz Allen Hamilton, the consultancy, estimated that monetary funding of $1 million per year from now until 2030 will allow nations the resources "for conserving water, maintaining and replacing infrastructure, and constructing sanitation systems" (p. 53). The trend of funding has decreased rather than increased, "investment in water facilities as a percentage of gross domestic product has dropped by half in most countries since the late 1990s" (p. 53). Rodgers envisions progress in water infrastructure improvements from the fast developing countries of China and India.

Rodgers, P. (2008, August). Facing the Freshwater Crisis. Scientific American, 299(2), pp. 46-53.

Suggested reading: Balancing Water for Human and Nature: The new approach in ecohydrology. Water Crisis: Myth or reality. The World's Water 2008-2009, Peter H. Gleick. Water for Food, Water for Life: A comprehensive assessment of water management in agriculture.

Economist April 11, 2009 . Sin Aqua Non: Water shortages are a growing problem, but not for the reasons that people think

In an attempt to dispel the common perceptions people have for water shortages, the author argued that water shortages entail a local and not a global problem. Global human water consumption, the author estimated as nine percent of total supply. The repercussions of this volume of use had adverse effects on water ecosystems worldwide—the inability of major rivers to reach the sea, diminishing fresh water fish stock, the infusion of salt water into fresh water deltas, and the decline in wetland habitats.

The author noted a number of trends that can make the situation more acute—population growth, diet, and global warming. The world population continues to grow and become more affluent, increasing the amount of meat in the diet. The author contended that meat required more water to produce than a vegetarian diet. Climate change altered historic water usage patterns three ways, the way plants grow, water management due to more rain and less snow, and the emphasis on water-intensive biofuels rather than oil. The second pattern fueled a demand for more dams as storage units worldwide.

Increased efficiency, the author posed as an answer to local and global water problems. Industry has realized greater efficiency, of the 20 percent of the world’s water that it uses.
Agriculture, the biggest guzzler of water, using 70 to 80 percent, could have the greatest impact on reduced consumption by increased efficiency. Chandra Madramootoo, of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, assumed a 30 percent decrease in agricultural water use with improved practices. Koichiro Matsuura, the head of UNESCO, recommended “changing incentives, improving information flows, and improving the way water use is governed” (p. 1). Water managers display ignorance in measurements of water use, such as the amount of water extracted from lakes and aquifers. Water governance varies by locale. Balkanized systems prohibit efficiencies. Erratic financing lacks a coherent plan. “Angel Gurría, the head of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, talks of ‘a crisis in water financing’” (p. 1). To reward water efficiency, the Nature Conservancy has formulated a “certification plan which aims to give companies and businesses seals of approval (a bit like the Fairtrade symbol) according to how efficiently they use water. The plan is supposed to get going in 2010” (p.1). The first step of a process.